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SUBJECT: POLICE LIABILITY UNDER SECTION 1983
VIOLATION: YOUR CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS BEEN VIOLATED?
LEGAL SOLUTION: USE THIS FEDERAL LAW FOR CITIZEN REDRESS AGAINST POLICE WRONG DOINGS, EVEN INVOLVING YOUR ANIMALS...
Redress defined as follows:
redress v. 1. To set right, remedy or rectify. 2. To make amends for. n. 1. Satisfaction for wrong done; reparation. 2. Correction.
Do you have a serious problem with any Police Officers who intimidate citizens from exersizing their rights, even involving your pets and animals? Here is your federal legal solution to getting your case heard. When law enforcement personnel are sued in civil court pursuant to Title 42 of the United States Code, Section 1983, before a court can assess whether a police officer violated a plaintiff's federally guaranteed rights, the court must first determine that the officer acted under color of law.
Briefly, the
PDF file goes into depth in describing the history of the color of law issue, the article divides the analysis into six parts:
(1) officers who intimidate citizens from exercising their rights,
(2) officers who settle personal disputes with police powers,
(3) officers who act pursuant to state statutes or municipal ordinances,
(4) officers who perform police functions,
(5) officers who identify themselves as law enforcement officials, and
(6) officers who act pursuant to departmental customs and policies.
This detailed
PDF article below is about Police Officers who intimidate citizens from exercising their rights.
PDF Link: http://www.ocde.k12.ca.us/downloads/legal/LIABILITY_SECT_1983.pdf
POLICE LIABILITY UNDER SECTION 1983
Schools Legal Service June 2003
Orange County Department of Education
I. HISTORY AND BACKGROUND OF SECTION 1983
was originally enacted by Congress as Section 1 of the Ku Klux Klan Act of April 20, 1871. Its purpose was to enforce the provisions of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. 1 The Act is also known as the Civil Rights Act of 1871. Section 1983 states in part:
“Every person who, under color of any statute, ordinance, regulation,
custom, or usage, of any State or Territory or the District of Columbia, subjects,
or causes to be subjected, any citizen of the United States or other person within
the jurisdiction thereof to the deprivation of any rights, privileges, or immunities
secured by the Constitution and laws, shall be liable to the party injured in an
action at law, suit in equity, or other proper proceeding for redress. …”
Section 1983’s primary objective was to provide a means to enforce the provisions of the
Fourteenth Amendment. Proponents of the bill argued that the states had no process by which
persons could obtain redress for violations of constitutionally guaranteed rights and that federal
legislation was the means by which these rights could be enforced. 2 Although the activities of
the Klu Klux Klan were the primary evil that the bill was designed to remedy, the bill was not
directed solely against the Klan and its members, but also against those persons who, in
representing a state, were unable or unwilling to enforce a state law. Thus the bill was intended
to protect not only the rights of African Americans who had recently been freed from slavery,
but also the rights of all citizens against state sponsored infringement of constitutional rights. 3
For many years after its passage, few lawsuits were filed under Section 1983. However,
beginning in the 1960’s, Section 1983 was frequently relied upon to redress a number of issues.
1 Ch. 22, 17 Stat.13 (42nd Cong., 1st Sess.). See, also, Monroe v. Pape, 365 U.S. 167, 81 S.Ct. 473, 476 (1961).
2 Cong. Globe, 42nd Cong., 1st Sess., 374-376 (1871) (Remarks of Congressman Lowe).
3 Cong. Globe, 42nd Cong., 1st Sess., 335, 374-376.
II. BASIS OF LIABILITY UNDER SECTION 1983
In Monroe v. Pape,4 the United States Supreme Court ruled that officials of a
governmental body may be sued under Section 1983. In Monroe, the police searched the wrong
house without a search warrant. Even though narcotics were found in the house, the search was
deemed to be improper and the individuals arrested in the house were released. The individuals
then brought suit in federal court pursuant to Section 1983 alleging that the City of Chicago and
the individual police officers had violated their rights against unreasonable search and seizure
under the Fourth Amendment. The lower courts dismissed the suit. The United States Supreme
Court reversed. The court went on to hold that the phrase “under color of” included acts of an
official acting under color of state authority. 5
To successfully prevail in an action under Section 1983, the courts have held that
plaintiffs must allege and prove two essential elements. First, plaintiffs must show that the
alleged conduct occurred under color of state law. Second, plaintiffs must show that the conduct
deprived plaintiffs of rights, privileges, or immunities secured by the United States Constitution
or a federal statute.6
In Monell v. Department of Social Services,7 the United States Supreme Court held that a
city is a person for purposes of Section 1983. However, a state is not a “person” for purposes of
Section 1983.8 In addition, state officials sued in their official capacities for damages or other
retroactive relief are not persons for purposes of Section 1983.9 However, the court noted that a
plaintiff may sue a state official for injunctive relief because that is prospective relief. 10 While a
state official may not be sued in their official capacity, the United States Supreme Court has held
that state officials and local officials may be sued in their “personal” capacity where the suit
seeks to impose individual, personal liability on the government officer for actions taken under
color of state law with the badge of state authority. 11
A plaintiff who brings an action under Section 1983 for violation of rights secured by the
Fourteenth Amendment must establish that the violation resulted from state action and, thus,
meets the statutory requirement of under “color of state law.”12 Independent contractors and
other individuals who willfully participate in a joint activity with a state or a local agency may
meet the requirements of acting under color of state law. 13
4 365 U.S. 167, 81 S.Ct. 473 (1961).
5 Monroe v. Pape, 365 U.S. 167, 81 S.Ct. 473 (1961).
6 Treatise on Constitutional Law, Section 19.16 (1999), pg. 64.
7 436 U.S. 658, 98 S.Ct. 2018 (197
.
8 Will v. Michigan Department of State Police, 491 U.S. 58, 109 S.Ct. 2304 (1989).
9 Id. at 70.
10 Id. at 70, note 10.
11 Hafer v. Melo, 502 U.S. 21, 112 S.Ct. 358 (1991).
12 Lugar v. Edmondson Oil Company, 457 U.S. 922, 935, note 18, 102 S.Ct. 2744, 2753, note 18 (1982).
13 West v. Atkins, 487 U.S. 42, 108 S.Ct. 2250 (198
; Adickes v. S.H. Kress & Co., 398 U.S. 144, 152-90 S.Ct. 1598, 1605
(1970).
Under Section 1983, a plaintiff must show that the challenged acts occurred under a
governmental policy, custom or usage. In Adickes v. S.H. Kress & Co.,14 the United States
Supreme Court held that custom, for purposes of Section 1983, must have the force of law by
virtue of the persistent practices of state officials. A political subdivision of the state may have a
custom with force of law, even if that custom is not applied statewide.15
Plaintiffs may bring an action under Section 1983 if their rights privileges or immunities
secured by federal statutory law were violated.16 In Maine v. Thiboutot, the plaintiffs claimed
that the State of Maine had deprived them of welfare benefits to which they were entitled under
the federal Social Security Act. The Supreme Court rejected Maine’s argument that the phrase
secured by the constitution and laws in Section 1983 was limited to civil rights or equa l
protection laws. The Supreme Court held that the Section 1983 broadly included violations of
federal statutory law as well as federal constitutional law.17
14 398 U.S. 144, 90 S.Ct. 1598 (1970).
15 Id. at 171.
16 Maine v. Thiboutot , 448 U.S. 1, 100 S.Ct. 2502 (1980).
17 Id. at 4.
III. IMMUNITY FROM LIABILITY
Certain officials are immune from liability under Section 1983. For example, judges
acting in their judicial role and legislators acting in their legislative role are absolutely immune
from liability for damages under Section 1983.18 The courts have also recognized a qualified
immunity defense under Section 1983. The scope of qualified immunity includes most state and
local officials.19
In Wood v. Strickand,20 the United States Supreme Court held that school board members
were entitled to qualified immunity. The court held that if the official knew or reasonably should
have known that the action taken would violate the constitutional rights of the plaintiffs or if the
official took the action with the malicious intention to cause a deprivation of constitutional rights
or injury to the plaintiff, then the official could be held liable under Section 1983. In
determining whether qualified immunity applies, the courts must look to currently applicable law
and determine whether the law was clearly established at the time the action in question
occurred, and if so, the public official must show that because of extraordinary circumstances, he
or she did not know, nor reasonably should have known, of the relevant standard.
In Wood v. Strickland, the school board members failed to give a due process hearing to
students accused of mixing an alcoholic beverage with other liquid and serving it at a school
function. The court found that the school board’s disposition of the matter did not constitute a
hearing and that the school board’s expulsion of the students did not comply with clearly
established law, and therefore, the student’s rights were denied and the school board members
could be held liable under Section 1983.21
In Wood v. Strickland, a lawsuit was filed against members of the school board and two
school administrators under Section 1983, claiming that their federal constitutional rights to due
process were infringed under color of state law by their expulsion from the school district on the
grounds of their violation of a school regulation prohibiting the use or possession of intoxicating
beverages at school or school activities. The compliant, as amended, sought compensatory and
punitive damages, injunctive relief to resume school attendance, an injunction preventing the
school district from imposing any sanctio ns as a result of the expulsion, an injunction restraining
enforcement of the challenged regulations, as well as declaratory relief as to the constitutional
invalidity of the regulation, and the expungement of any record of the student’s expulsion. 22
At the time of the expulsion, the students were sixteen years old and in the tenth grade.
The students agreed to “spike” the punch at a school activity with malt liquor. They bought two
ten ounce bottles and mixed it into the punch and the punch was served at the meeting without
apparent effect.23
18 Pierson v. Ray, 386 U.S. 547, 87 S.Ct. 1213 (1967); Tenney v. Brandhove, 341 U.S. 367, 71 S.Ct. 283 (1951).
19 Wood v. Strickland, 420 U.S. 308, 95 S.Ct. 92 (1975).
20 420 U.S. 308 (1975).
21 Ibid.
22 Id. at 310.
23 Id. at 311.
Ten days later the teacher in charge of the extracurricular activity heard something about
the spiking of the punch and questioned the students involved. The students admitted their
involvement to the teacher and then later admitted their involvement to the principal. The
principal then suspended them from school for a two week period. At the first board meeting,
the teacher and the principal recommended leniency. However, the superintendent of schools
received a phone call from the teacher’s husband, also a teacher at the high school, who reported
that he had heard that one of the girls involved had been in a fight that evening at a basketball
game. The superintendent informed the board members of the news but did not mention the
name of the girl involved. The teacher and the principal then withdrew their recommendations
of leniency and the members of the board voted to expel the girls from school for the remainder
of the semester, a period of approximately three months.24
The board subsequently agreed to hold another meeting on the matter two weeks later.
The girls, their parents and their legal counsel attended the second meeting. The girls admitted
mixing the malt liquor into the punch with the intent of “spiking” it but asked the board to forego
its rule punishing such violations by such substantial suspensions. Neither the teacher nor the
principal were present at the meeting. The board voted not to change its policy and expelled the
girls for the remainder of the semester.25
The court, in Wood v. Strickland, reviewed prior cases with respect to the scope of
immunity protecting various types of governmental officials from liability for damages under
Section 1983. The court noted that school board members function at different times in the
nature of legislators and adjudicators in the school disciplinary process. The court noted that
school boards are often faced with instances of civil disorder and confronted with student
behavior causing or threatening disruption and that school board members have an obvious need
for prompt action and decisions must be made in reliance on factual information supplied by
others.26
The court noted that liability for damages for every action which is found subsequently to
have been in violation of a student’s constitutional rights and to have caused injury would
unfairly impose upon school officials the burden of mistakes made in good faith in the course of
exercising their discretion. The court noted that school board members must judge whether there
has been a violation of school regulations and the appropriate sanctions for those violations.
Denying any measure of immunity in these circumstances would not contribute to principled and
fearless decisionmaking but to intimidation. 27 The court stated:
“The imposition of monetary costs for mistakes which were not
unreasonable in light of all the circumstances would undoubtedly deter even the
most conscientious school decisionmaker from exercising his judgment
independently, forcefully, and in a manner best serving the long-term interest of
the school and the students. The most capable candidates for school board
positions might be deterred from seeking office if heavy burdens upon their
24 Id. at 311-312.
25 Id. at 312-313.
26 Id. at 319.
27 Id. at 319.
private resources from monetary liability were a likely prospect during their
tenure.”28
For these reasons, the United States Supreme Court felt that school officials including
school board members and employees should be entitled to qualified immunity for action taken
in the good faith fulfillment of their responsibilities and within the bounds of reason under all the
circumstances.29
The court stated:
“Implicit in the idea that officials have some immunity – absolute or
qualified – for their acts, is a recognition that they may err. The concept of
immunity assumes this and goes on to assume that it is better to risk some error
and possible injury from such error than not to decide or act at all.”30
The court noted that a school official must be acting sincerely and with a belief that he or
she is doing right to receive immunity. However, an act that violates a student’s constitutional
rights cannot be justified by ignorance or disregard of settled, indisputable law on the part of one
entrusted with the supervision of students’ daily lives.31 The Supreme Court concluded:
“Therefore, in the specific context of school discipline, we hold that a
school board member is not immune from liability for damages under Section
1983 if he knew or reasonably should have known that the action he took within
his sphere of official responsibility would violate the constitutional rights of the
student affected, or if he took the action with the malicious intention to cause a
deprivation of constitutional rights or other injury to the student. That is not to
say that school board members are ‘charged with predicting the future course of
constitutional law.’ . . . A compensatory award will be appropriate only if the
school board member has acted with such an impermissible motivation or with
such disregard of the student’s clearly established constitutional rights that his
action cannot reasonably be characterized as being in good faith.”32
The court went on to state that the regulation which used the term intoxicating beverage
should not be required to be linked to the definition in state criminal statutes which might require
a higher alcohol content. The court ruled that the lower courts could rely on the intent of the
school board members who passed the regulation. The court reversed a Court of Appeals
conclusion that the school board’s interpretation of its own regulation was not reasonable and
should be linked to the state criminal statute.33 The Supreme Court stated:
“But Section 1983 does not extend the right to relitigate in federal court
evidentiary questions arising in school disciplinary proceeding or the proper
construction of school regulations. The system of public education that has
evolved in this Nation relies necessarily upon the discretion and judgment of
28 Id. at 319-320.
29 Id. at 321.
30 Id. at 321.
31 Id. at 321.
32 Id. at 322.
Id. at 325-326.
school administrators and school board members and Section 1983 was not
intended to be a vehicle for federal court correction of errors in the exercise of
that discretion which do not rise to the level of violations of specific constitutional
guarantees.”34
The Supreme Court sent the matter back to the lower courts to determine whether the
students had been denied procedural due process at the first school board meeting and whether
the school district had cured the initial procedural deficiencies at the second board meeting based
on the principles set forth in its decision. 35
In Gomez v. Toledo,36 the Supreme Court held that the defendant has the burden of
pleading qualified immunity. The Supreme Court held that the defendant would know whether
there are underlying facts which would support a qualified immunity defense. Therefore, it is
reasonable to require the defendant to plead the defense of qualified immunity.37
In Davis v. Scherer,38 the United States Supreme Court analyzed the issue of clearly
established rights. The Supreme Court held that if, at the time of employee’s conduct and the
termination of his employment, there was no clearly established due process right that was
violated, when the plaintiff was discharged without a pre-termination hearing, then it was not
unreasonable under Fourteenth Amendment due process principles for the Florida Department of
Highway Safety and Motor Vehicles to conclude that the employee had been provided with the
fundamentals of due process. The court held that a plaintiff who seeks damages for violation of
constitutional or statutory rights may overcome defendant officials’ qualified immunity only by
showing that those rights were clearly established at the time of the conduct at issue.39
In Davis, the employee was employed by the Florida Highway Patrol as a radio teletype
operator and asked for permission from his employer to work as well for the local county sheriff
as a reserve deputy. To avoid conflicts of interest, the Florida Highway Patrol required that all
proposed outside employment of patrol members must be approved by the Department. Initially,
the employee was granted permission to accept the part time work but a month later the
permission was revoked. The employee continued to work at the second job despite the
revocation of permission, explaining that he had invested too much money in uniforms to give up
his part time work.
The court noted that under its previous decision in Harlow v. Fitzgerald,40 state and local
officials are shielded from liability for civil damages insofar as their conduct does not violate
clearly established statutory or constitutional rights of which a reasonable person would have
known. The court noted that state and local officials sued for constitutional violations do not
lose their qualified immunity merely because their conduct violates some statutory or
administrative provision.41
34
Id. at 326.
35
Id. at 327.
36 446 U.S. 635, S.Ct. 1920 (1980).
37
Id. at 641.
38 468 U.S. 183, 104 S.Ct. 3012 (1984).
39 Ibid.
40 457 U.S. 800, 102 S.Ct. 2727 (1982).
41 Id. at 191-194.
The court noted, “Neither federal nor state officials lose their immunity by violating the
clear command of a statute or regulation – of federal or of state law – unless that statute or
regulation provides the basis for the cause of action sued upon.”42 The court stated:
“We acknowledge of course that officials should conform their conduct to
applicable statutes and regulations . . . Appellee’s submission, if adopted, would
disrupt the balance that our cases strike between the interests in vindication of
citizen’s constitutional rights and in public officials’ effective performance of
their duties. The qualified immunity doctrine recognizes that officials can act
without fear of harassing litigation only if they reasonably can anticipate when
their conduct may give rise to liability for damages and only if unjustified
lawsuits are quickly terminated . . . Yet, under appellee’s submission, officials
would liable in an indeterminate amount for violation of any constitutional right –
one that was not clearly defined or perhaps not even foreshadowed at the time of
the alleged violation – merely because their official conduct also violated some
statute or regulation.”43
In essence, the United States Supreme Court said that not every violation of a federal or
state statute or regulation would give rise to liability for damages under Section 1983. The court
went on to state:
“Nor is it always fair, or sound policy, to demand official compliance with
statute and regulation on paying of money damages. Such officials as police
officers or prison wardens, to say nothing of higher level executives who enjoy
only qualified immunity, routinely make close decisions in the exercise of the
broad authority that necessarily is delegated to them. These officials are subject
to plethora of rules, ‘often so voluminous, ambiguous and contradictory, and in
such flux that officials can only comply with or enforce them selectively.’ In
these circumstances, officials should not err always on the side of caution.”44
The court concluded that a plaintiff who seeks damages for violation of constitutional or
statutory rights may overcome the official’s qualified immunity only by showing that those
rights were clearly established at the time of the conduct at issue.45
42 Id. at 194, note 12.
43 Id. at 194-195.
44 Id. at 196.
45 Id. at 197.
IV. DAMAGES UNDER SECTION 1983
In Carey v. Piphus,46 the United States Supreme Court held that students could sue for
damages under Section 1983 for a deprivation of their rights. In Carey, the students alleged that
they had been suspended from school without due process of law. The court held that in order to
recover substantial damages, the students must prove that they were actually deprived of a right,
and since there was no proof of actual injury, the students were awarded $1.00 in damages each.
In Carey, students were suspended for twenty days for violating school rules against the
use of drugs. The students claimed that they had not been smoking marijuana but were
suspended over their protests. Despite the ruling of Goss v. Lopez, which held that an
evidentiary hearing for suspensions in excess of ten days must be held, the school board
suspended the students for twenty days without such hearings.47
Another student was suspended for twenty days for wearing an earring to school. The
school district instituted a no earring policy to reduce gang violence.48
The federal district court ruled in favor of the students and ordered their reinstatement.
The district court held that both students had been suspended without procedural due process and
held that the school district was not entitled to qualified immunity from damages because they
should have known that a suspension in excess of ten days without an adjudicative hearing or
expulsion hearing would violate procedural due process.49
The Supreme Court granted a hearing to consider whether, in an action under Section
1983 for the deprivation of procedural due process, a plaintiff must prove that he or she was
actually injured by the deprivation before they may recover substantial “nonpunitive” damages.50
The court held that rights, constitutional and otherwise, do not exist in a vacuum. Their purpose
is to protect persons from injuries to particular interests and their contours are shaped by the
interests they protect.51 The court looked to the common law of torts and compensatory damages
and was concerned that in some circumstances an award of damages for injuries caused by the
suspensions would constitute a windfall rather than compensation. 52
The court rejected the students’ argument that damages should be presumed in cases
involving deprivation of procedural due process.53 The court held that students must show actual
injury to recover compensatory damages but that if there was a violation of their procedural due
process rights, they were entitled to nominal damages.54 The court stated:
46 435 U.S. 247 (197
.
“By making the deprivation of such rights actionable for nominal damages
without proof of actual injury, the law recognizes the importance to organized
society that those rights be scrupulously observed; but at the same time, it remains
true to the principle that substantial damages should be awarded only to
compensate actual injury or, in the case of exemplary or punitive damages, to
deter or punish malicious deprivations of rights.”55
The Supreme Court has held that punitive damages are available under Section 1983.56
The court held that a jury could assess punitive damages in a 1983 action if the plaintiff showed
that the defendant’s conduct was motivated by evil motive or intent or that the defendant’s
conduct involved reckless or callous indifference to the federally protected rights of others.57
Equitable relief, including injunctive relief, is available under Section 1983.58 In
addition, Congress enacted the Civil Rights Attorneys Fees Awards Act of 1976 to authorize the
award of attorney’s fees under Section 1983.59
Id. at 266.
56 Smith v. Wade, 461 U.S. 30, 103 S.Ct. 1625 (1983).
57 Id. at 56.
58 See Millikin v. Bradley, 418 U.S. 717, 94 S.Ct. 3112 (1974).
59 42 U.S.C. section 1988.
V. PERSONAL LIABILITY UNDER SECTION 1983
Under Section 1983, school district employees may be sued in their personal or
individual capacity. Under these circumstances, an employee or board member of a school
district may be found to be individually liable even though the school district may not be. The
plaintiff must show that the individual employee or school board member viola ted a clearly
established law and that the individual exhibited a callous indifference for the rights of the
plaintiff.60 In Davis v. Scherer,61 the Supreme Court held that:
“Officials are shielded from liability for civil damages insofar as their
conduct does not violate the clearly established statutory or constitutional rights
of which a reasonable person would have known.”62
In Hafer v. Melo,63 the Supreme Court held that state officers may be personally liable
for damages under Section 1983 based upon actions taken in their official capacities. The court
held that the state officer’s potential liability is not limited to acts under color of state law that
are outside their authority or not essential to operation of state government, but also extends to
acts within their authority and necessary to performance of governmental functions and Eleventh
Amendment immunity does not erect barriers against suits to impose individual and personal
liability on state officers under Section 1983. A similar rule would apply to local officials.
In Hafer, the United States Supreme Court rejected the argument that the language of
Section 1983 does not authorize suits against state officers for damages arising from official acts.
In 1988, Barbara Hafer sought election to the post of Auditor General of Pennsylvania. During
the campaign, Hafer publicly promised to fire all employees on a list of twenty one employees
given to her by the United States Attorney, James West. Hafer won the election and shortly after
becoming Auditor General, she dismissed eighteen employees, including James Melo, on the
basis that they “bought” their jobs. Melo and seven other terminated employees sued Hafer and
West in federal district court. They asserted state and federal claims, including a claim under
Section 1983 and sought monetary damages. Another group of employees who lost their jobs
filed suit as well and alleged that Hafer discharged them because of their affiliation with the
Democratic Party and support for her opponent in the 1988 election. The district court
consolidated the two actions and dismissed all their claims.64
The Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit reversed the district court’s decision. The
Court of Appeals held that while Hafer’s power to hire and fire derived from her position as
Auditor General, it said, a suit for damages based on the exercise of this authority could be
brought against Hafer in a personal capacity because Hafer acted under color of state law. The
Court of Appeals held that respondents could maintain a Section 1983 individual capacity suit
against her.
60 Mitchell v. Forsyth, 472 U.S. 511, 105 S. Ct. 2806 (1985).
61 468 U.S. 183, 104 S.Ct. 3012 (1984).
62 Id. at 191.
63 502 U.S. 21, 112 S.Ct. 358 (1991).
64 Id. at 23.
The United States Supreme Court agreed to hear an appeal and sought to clarify the
confusion about the distinction between personal capacity and official capacity lawsuits under
Section 1983. The court held that official capacity lawsuits generally represent only another way
of pleading an action against an entity of which an officer is an agent. Therefore, the court treats
suits against state officials in their official capacity as suits against the state or local agency.
When officials sued in this capacity in federal court die or leave office, their successors
automatically assume their roles in the litigation. In official capacity suits, since it is the
governmental entity and not the named official, the entity’s policy or custom must have played a
part in the violation of federal law. For the same reason, the only immunities available to the
defendant in an official capacity action are those that the governmental entity possesses.65
Personal capacity suits, on the other hand, seek to impose individual or personal liability
upon a governmental officer for actions taken under color of state law. To establish personal
liability in a Section 1983 action, it is enough to show that the official, acting under color of state
law, caused the deprivation of a federal right. While the plaintiff in a personal capacity lawsuit
need not establish a connection to governmental policy or custom, officials sued in their personal
capacities, unlike those sued in their official capacities, may assert personal immunity defenses
such as objectively reasonable reliance on existing law. 66
State or local officers sued in their personal capacity come to court as individuals. A
government official in the role of personal capacity defendant thus fits within the statutory term
of person in Section 1983.67
The court rejected Hafer’s argument that she should not be personally liable for any
actions taken in her official capacity. The court concluded that only a very limited class of
officials, including the President of the United States, legislators carrying out their legislative
functions, and judges carrying out their judicial functions require complete protection from suit.
The court held that state executive officials are not entitled to absolute immunity for their official
actions and held that qualified immunity attaches to administrative employment decisions, even
if the same official has absolute immunity when performing other functions.68
The court also held that Eleventh Amendment immunity does not apply to suits to impose
individual and personal liability on state officials under Section 1983. The court went on to
state:
“To be sure, imposing personal liability on state officers may hamper their
performance of public duties. But such concerns are properly addressed within
the framework of our personal immunity jurisprudence . . .
We hold that state officials, sued in their individual capacities are
‘persons’ within the meaning of Section 1983. The Eleventh Amendment does
65 Id. at 25.
66 Ibid.
67 Id. at 26.
68 Id. at 27-29.
not bar such suits, nor are state officers absolutely immune from personal liability
under Section 1983 solely by virtue of the ‘official’ nature of their acts.”69
69 Id. at 31.
VI. THE AWARD OF SECTION 1983 DAMAGES UNDER THE IDEA
The federal appellate courts are split on whether parents of special education students and
special education students may recover monetary damages under Section 1983 for statutory
violations of the IDEA. In addition, at least one California court has ruled that a plaintiff may
not recover monetary damages for a violation of the IDEA under Section 1983.70
The Second and Third Circuits have held that when Congress amended the IDEA,
Congress intended to allow the parents of special education students to bring lawsuits under
Section 1983.71 However, the Fourth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth, Ninth and Tenth Circuits have
held that the parents of special education children may not bring suit under Section 1983 for
alleged violations of the IDEA. 72
In Mrs. W. v. Tirozzi, the Court of Appeals held that prior to 1986, no express private
right of action was found in the Education of the Handicapped Act (now IDEA).73 In response to
the Supreme Court’s decision in Smith v. Robinson,74 the Court of Appeals held that the
Supreme Court added 20 U.S.C. section 1415(f), (now 1415(l)) to the IDEA. The court held that
this statutory provision states that the provisions of the IDEA do not provide the exclusive
avenue for redress available to disabled children and that Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act
of 1973 and 42 U.S.C. section 1983 and other constitutional or statutory provision may be used
as remedies to enforce the IDEA educational rights subject to the IDEA’s existing exhaustion
requirements.75
In W.B. v. Matula, the Court of Appeals noted that Section 1983 does not confer
substantive rights but redresses the deprivation of those rights elsewhere secured and that those
rights may be created by the Constitution or a federal statute. The court held that plaintiffs may
file a Section 1983 action to challenge federal statutory violations by state or local officials.
However, the court noted that Section 1983 actions are impermissible when Congress intended to
foreclose such private enforcement and that such intent is generally found either in the express
language of a statute or where a statutory remedial scheme is so comprehensive that an intent to
prohibit enforcement other than by the statute’s own means may be inferred.76
In W.B. v. Matula, the court noted that the Supreme Court, in Smith v. Robinson, held
that the IDEA was a comprehensive statute and the exclusive means by which parents and
children could secure a free appropriate public education. In response to Smith, Congress
70 White v. State of California, 195 Cal.App.3d 452, 471, 240 Cal.Rptr. 732 (1987).
71 See, Mrs. W v. Tirozzi, 832 F.2d 748-750, 42 Ed.LawRptr. 727 (2nd Cir. 1987); WB v. Matula, 67 F.3d 484, 492, 104
Ed.LawRptr. 28 (3rd Cir. 1995). See, also, 20 U.S.C. section 1415(f), now Section 1415(l).
72 Sellers v. School Board, 141 F.3d 524, 529, 125 Ed.LawRptr. 1078 (4th Cir. 199
; Padilla v. School District No. 1, 233 F.3d
1268, 113 Ed.LawRptr. 559 (10th Cir. 2000); Charlie F. v Board of Education, 98 F.3d 989 (7th Cir. 1996); Heidemann v.
Rother, 84 F.3d 1021 (8th Cir. 1996); Crocker v. Tennessee School Athletic Association, 980 F.2d 382, 79 Ed.LawRptr. 389 (6th
Cir. 1992); Witte v. Clark County School District, 197 F.3d 1271 (9th Cir. 1999); Robb v. Bethel School District, 308 F.3d 1047
(9th Cir. 2002).
73 Id. at 751.
74 468 U.S. 992, 1013, 104 S.Ct. 3457, 3469 (1984).
75 Id. at 751.
76 Id. at 493.
amended the IDEA to add Section 1415(f) (now 1415(l)), a provision which establishes that the
IDEA’s provisions are not the sole means for redress available to disabled children and their
parents.77 The court, in W.B. v. Matula, went on to state that damages were an available remedy
under Section 1983 and held that, “ . . . as a matter of law, an aggrieved parent or disabled child
is not barred from seeking monetary damages . . .”78
As indicated above, a number of appellate courts have held that parents of special
education children may not bring damage suits under Section 1983 for alleged violations of the
IDEA.79
In Sellers, the Court of Appeals reviewed the history of Section 1415(l) and noted that
Section 1415(l), (formerly 1415(f)), does not expressly include Section 1983. The court noted:
“Concededly, Section 1415(f), [now 1415(l)], overrules much of Smith’s
holding. The amendment specifically rejects the Smith court’s interpretation of
the EHA as precluding claims under the Constitutio n or the Rehabilitation Act
that are virtually identical to EHA claims. But while Section 1415(f) explicitly
preserves remedies under the Constitution, the Rehabilitation Act, and specified
‘other’ statutes, it simply fails to mention Section 1983. The reference to ‘other’
statutes protecting the rights of disabled children cannot naturally be read to
include 42 U.S.C. Section 1983, a statute which speaks generally and mentions
neither disability nor youth. By preserving rights and remedies ‘under the
Constitution,’ Section 1415(f) does permit plaintiffs to resort to Section 1983 for
constitutional violations, notwithstanding the similarity of such claims to those
stated directly under the IDEA. But Section 1415(f) does not permit plaintiff to
sue under Section 1983 for an IDEA violation, which is statutory in nature.”80
The court went on to note that nothing in Section 1415(f) overrules the Supreme Court’s
decision in Smith to the extent that Smith held that Congress intended the IDEA to provide the
sole remedies for violations of that same statute. If Congress meant to overrule Smith on this
significant point, it certainly chose an oblique and essentially implausible means of doing so
according to the court in Sellers.81
The court in Sellers also noted that the IDEA is a joint federal state program under
Congress’ spending power. In return for federal funds to aid the education of disabled children,
participating states must meet certain statutory requirements. Since funding statutes operate
much like contracts between the federal and state governments, the legitimacy of Congress’
power to legislate under the spending power rests on whether the state voluntarily and knowingly
accepted the terms of the contract. States cannot knowingly accept federal funding conditions
unless they are accurately apprised of the requirements being imposed by the federal
government. Therefore, if Congress desires to condition the state’s receipt of federal funds it
must do so unambiguously. 82
77 Id. at 493.
78 Id. at 495.
79 See, Footnote 71.
80 Id. at 530.
81 Id. at 530.
82 Id. at 531-532.
The Court of Appeals in Sellers, went on to state that Section 1415(f) lacks the clarity
required under the spending clause. The court noted that Section 1415(f) fails to state or even
imply that Section 1983 suits may be brought for IDEA violations. Instead, it omits Section
1983 from its list of statutes. The Court of Appeals in Sellers stated that this omission is
significant and that permitting the recovery of general damages through Section 1983 actions for
IDEA violations would subject school boards to damages much greater than the potential
liability for tuition reimbursement they currently face under IDEA itself.83 The Court of Appeals
stated:
“Section 1415(f)’s vague language surely did not place States on notice of
such sweeping and open-ended liability. If we were to permit section 1983 claims
like the Sellers’ to proceed, we would effectively blindside States with large and
unanticipated penalties. Accordingly, we hold that Section 1415(f) fails to
express unambiguously a congressional intent that IDEA violations also be
remedied by Section 1983 . . . We hold that Sellers cannot sue under Section 1983
for alleged IDEA violations.”84
In Padilla, the Court of Appeals agreed with the decision in Sellers and held that Section
86
1983 may not be used to remedy IDEA violations.85 In Witte v. Clark County School District,
the Court of Appeals held that a plaintiff seeking monetary damages for physical and emotional
abuse under Section 1983, Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act87 and the Americans with
Disabilities Act (ADA)88 were not required to exhaust their administrative remedies under the
IDEA because “ . . . ordinarily, monetary damages are not available under that statute.”89 The
court noted that the plaintiffs had already resolved all other issues under the IDEA administrative
processes and were seeking retrospective damages only.
In Robb v. Bethel School District,90 the Court of Appeals held that plaintiffs, in most
cases must exhaust the IDEA administrative remedies. The court stated:
“Because money damages are not ‘available under’ the IDEA . . . it might
seem that a plaintiff can avoid the IDEA’s exhaustion requirement merely by
limiting the prayer for relief to money damages. But only one circuit court has so
held. . . . A larger number of circuit courts have taken the opposite approach. . . .91
The court in Robb held that it is not the remedy sought but the underlying injuries that
determine whether relief can be granted under the IDEA and administrative remedies must be
exhausted. In Robb, the court held that the alleged loss of education due to the child being
“pulled out” for tutoring should be addressed at an IDEA administrative hearing first to
determine if remedies other than money damages would redress their grievance. The court
stated:
83 Id. at 532.
84 Id. at 532.
85 Padilla v. School District No. 1, 233 F.3d 1268 (10th Cir. 2000).
86 197 F.3d 1271 (9th Cir. 1999).
87 29 U.S.C. section 794.
88 42 U.S.C. sections 12101, et seq.
89 197 F.3d 1271, 1275 (9th Cir. 1999).
90 308 F.3d 1047 (9th Cir. 2002).
91 Id. at 1049.
“We stated, in other words, that the ‘
laintiff in fact ha
used
administrative procedures to secure the remedies that are available under the
IDEA.’ . . . Moreover, the plaintiff was seeking only retrospective damages, not
damages to be measured by the cost of remedial services (such as those offered
under the IDEA). . . . Finally, and perhaps most importantly, the plaintiff’s
allegations centered around physical abuse and injuries. We wrote, ‘The remedies
available under the IDEA would not appear to be well suited to addressing past
physical injuries adequately; such injuries typically are remedied through an
award of monetary damages.’. . . In Witte, neither the genesis nor the
manifestations of the abuse were educational. . . . There was no reason to believe
the plaintiff’s injuries could be redressed to any extent by the IDEA’s
administrative procedures and remedies. So we permitted the plaintiff to avoid
the IDEA’s exhaustion requirement. We did not intend to chart a course away
from the holdings of our sister circuits.”92
The court went on to note:
“The Robbs are in a very different position from the claimant in Witte.
They have not taken full advantage of the IDEA administrative procedures to
secure the remedies available thereunder. They do not claim physical injury.
And they request money damages to compensate them for psychological and
educational injuries the IDEA may remedy. . . . Because their injuries could be
redressed to some degree by the IDEA’s administrative procedures and remedies,
the Robbs’ complaint must be dismissed. We agree with our sister circuits that
where, as here, a plaintiff has alleged injuries that could be redressed to some
degree by the IDEA’s administrative procedures and remedies, then the courts
should require exhaustion of the administrative remedies.”93
92 Id. at 1052.
93 Id. at 1052-1054.
VII. THE ORDWAY DECISION
Recently, attorneys representing parents of special education children have been filing
and threatening to file actions under Section 1983 against school district employees in their
individual or personal capacity. As discussed above, a number of appellate courts, including the
Ninth Circuit, have ruled that Section 1983 damages are not available for violations of the
IDEA.94 However, in a recent district court case, a federal district judge ruled that the parent of a
special education student may recover damages against a director of student services under
Section 1983.95
The court in Ordway based its decision on the language in Section 1415(f).96 Section
1415(f), now Section 1415(l), states:
“Nothing in this chapter shall be construed to restrict or limit the rights,
procedures and remedies available under the Constitution, the Americans with
Disabilities Act … Title V of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 … or other federal
laws protecting the rights of children with disabilities, except that before the filing
of a civil action under such laws seeking relief that is also available under this
subchapter, the procedures under subsection (f) and subsection (g) of this section
shall be exha usted to the same extent as would be required had the action been
brought under this subchapter.”
Although Section 1415(l) does not specifically refer to Section 1983 actions, the federal
district court in Ordway ruled that parents of special education children may file an action under
Section 1983. The court in Ordway noted:
“One important result that flows from the determination that statutory
violations of IDEA may support a Section 1983 action is the availability of
damages for violation of IDEA. The court is mindful that a damages remedy for
IDEA violations will have significant policy implications. However, by providing
for Section 1983 to address IDEA violations, Congress appears to have intended
this result. . . .”97
The court in Ordway went on to discuss Eleventh Amendment immunity. In previous
cases, the Ninth Circuit has granted school districts Eleventh Amendment immunity as an arm of
the state. The court in Ordway held that the Director of Student Services, as a school district
employee, was entitled to Eleventh Amendment immunity in her official capacity. 98
94 Witte v. Clark County School District, 197 F.3d 1271 (9th Cir. 1999); Robb v. Bethel School District, 308 F.3d 1047 (9th Cir.
2002).
95 Goleta Union Elementary School District v. Ordway , 166 F.Supp.2d 1287, 158 Ed.LawRptr. 254 (2001); see, also, Goleta
Union Elementary School District v. Ordway , 248 F.Supp.2d 936 (C.D.Cal. 2002).
96 20 U.S.C. section 1415(f) (now 1415(l)).
97 Id. at 1295-96.
98 Id. at 1297; see, also Belanger v. Madera Unified School District, 963 F.2d 248 (9th Cir. 1992).
The court in Ordway went on to state that the Director of Student Services could be sued
in her individual or personal capacity (despite the Ninth Circuit decisions in Witte99 and Robb100)
and that the employee may raise the defense of qualified immunity. The court in Ordway noted
that public officials who carry out executive or administrative functions are protected from
personal monetary liability so long as their actions do not violate clearly established federal
statutory or constitutional standards which a reasonable person knew or should have known.101
This standard turns on the objective reasonableness of the official’s conduct.102 The United
States Supreme Court in Harlow v. Fitzgerald summarized the standard as follows:
“. . . Whether an official protected by qualified immunity may be held
personally liable for an allegedly unlawful official action generally turns on the
‘objective legal reasonableness’ of the action, assessed in light of the legal rules
that were ‘clearly established’ at the time this action was taken.”103
The court in Ordway noted that government officials performing discretionary functions
are entitled to qualified immunity when their conduct does not violate clearly established
statutory or constitutional rights of which a reasonable person would have known.
In Collins v. Jordan,104 the Ninth Circuit established a two part test for determining
whether a state official is entitled to qualified immunity:
“The Court must first determine whether the plaintiff has alleged a
violation of a right which is clearly established and stated with particularity . . .
the plaintiff bears the burden of showing that the right he alleges to have been
violated was clearly established . . . Second, the Court must consider whether,
under the facts alleged, a reasonable official could have believed that his conduct
was lawful . . . It is the defendant’s burden to show that a reasonable . . . officer
could have believed, in light of the settled law, that he was not violating a
constitutional or statutory right.”105
The threshold determination of whether the law governing the contested issue is clearly
established is a question of law for the court.106 The right the official is alleged to have violated
must have been clearly established in a more particularized manner and the contours of the right
must be sufficiently clear that a reasonable official would understand that what he or she is doing
violates that right.107
In Ordway, the federal district court held that the Director of Student Services’ conduct in
transferring a special education student, at the request of the student’s mother, from Goleta
Valley Junior High School to La Colina Junior High School without investigation as to whether
La Colina Junior High School would be an appropriate placement for the student, was a violation
99 Witte v. Clark County School District, 197 F.3d 1271 (9th Cir. 1999).
100 Robb v. Bethel School District, 308 F.3d 1047 (9th Cir. 2002).
101 Id. at 1298; Harlow v. Fitzgerald, 457 U.S. 800, 818, 102 S.Ct. 2727 (1982).
102 Id. at 818.
103 Anderson v. Creighton, 483 U.S. 635, 639, 107 S.Ct. 3034 (1987).
104 110 F.3d 1363 (9th Cir. 1996).
105 Id. at 1369.
106 Harlow v. Fitzgerald, 457 U.S. 800, 818 (1982).
107 Goleta Union Elementary School District v. Ordway , 166 F.Supp.2d 1287, 1299 (C.D. Cal. 2001).
of clearly established law, even though the transfer of the special education student to a similar
junior high school within the same school district was at the request of the child’s mother. The
court in Ordway found that the sole conduct at issue was the Director of Student Services’
conduct in arranging a transfer of the special education student to La Colina Junior High in
February, 1997. The court held that the contours of the right must be sufficiently clear. To make
this determination, the court is required to survey the legal landscape and examine those cases
that are most like the instant case.108 The court in Ordway stated:
“The Court finds that it was clearly established at the time that Rigby
acted that school officials were under an obligation to fully assess a student before
instigating a substantial change in the student’s placement, such as a transfer of
schools. … Title 34 C.F.R. section 104.35(a) clearly establishes that an evaluation
must be conducted before any significant changes in a student’s placement are
instituted. In addition, placement decisions must be based upon the IEP. 34
C.F.R. section 300.552(a)(2). Thus the IEP must be developed before a
placement is chosen. . . .
“The Court finds that under clearly established law, Andrew’s transfer
from Goleta Valley to La Colina was an improper change in placement because it
was made without the development of goals and objective s pursuant to an IEP,
and without using the proper criteria for making placement decisions. The Court
therefore finds that the law governing the conducted issue is clearly established, at
least as related to Rigby’s transfer of Andrew to La Colina Junior High School.
Under IDEA and its enacting legislation, the law clearly required Rigby to
conduct an assessment before changing Andrew’s placement.”109
The court went on to state that the Director of Student Services may, nevertheless, be
entitled to qualified immunity if she could show that a reasonable official would not have known
that the conduct in question would violate the student’s clearly established rights. However, the
court found that it was implausible that an official with the Director of Student Services level of
responsibility would not know that it was unlawful to take action to change the placement of a
disabled child based solely on the telephone call of a parent. The court held that the Director of
Student Services should be familiar with the statutory requirements of the IDEA and that the
IDEA and its implementing regulations do not allow a school official to transfer a special
education student based solely on the telephone call of a parent. The court stated:
“IDEA requires that the education of a disabled student be ‘reasonably
calculated’ to provide a student with some educational benefit. Such calculation
and planning appears to have been absent from Rigby’s decision to transfer
Andrew to La Colina. The Court finds that it is clear that a reasonable
supervisory official familiar with the precision and scope of IDEA’s requirements
would know that the law required more than the simple accommodation of a
parent’s request. The Court finds that a reasonable official could not have
believed that it was lawful to transfer Andrew Ordway to a different school
108 Ibid.
109 Id. at 1301-1302.
without first conducting an investigation into whether the transfer was a proper
placement.”110
110 Id. at 1303.
VIII. CHANGE OF PLACEMENT UNDER THE IDEA
The stay put provision of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) is one
of the most unique and controversial provisions of the IDEA. The stay put provision limits the
ability of school administrators to unilaterally transfer or change the placement of special
education students.
School administrators view the stay put rule as a hindrance or impediment to maintaining
order and a safe environment in public schools. School administrators view the stay put rule as a
blunt federal intrusion into their traditional authority to unilaterally make decisions at the local
level. Parents and advocates for the disabled see the stay put rule as a check on the unfettered
power of school administrators to transfer special programs without parental input and without
consideration of the child=s disability and special needs. Parents and advocates for the disabled
cite past examples of abuses at the local level as justifying federal intervention.
The stay put provision, 20 U.S.C. section 1415(j) states:
“Except as provided in subsection (k)(7), during the pendency of any
proceedings conducted pursuant to this section, unless the State or local
educational agency and the parents or guardians otherwise agree, the child shall
remain in the then-current educational placement of such child, or, if applying for
initial admission to a public school, shall, with the consent of the parents or
guardian, be placed in the public school program until all such proceedings have
been completed.”
The federal regulations, 34 C.F.R. 300.513, contain similar language.
In Honig v.Doe,111 the United States Supreme Court stated there were no legislative
exceptions to the stay put rule and held that a special education student could not be suspended
from school more than ten days without parental permission or a court order. As a result of this
decision, districts have had to seek court orders when students bring guns or knives to school or
engage in violent behavior.
The court in Honig stated:
“The language of Section 1415(e)(3) is unequivocal. It states plainly that
during the pendency of any proceedings initiated under the Act, unless the state or
local educational agency and the parents or guardians of a disabled child
otherwise agree, the child shall remain in the then current educational placement.”
Since the Honig decision, Congress has legislatively enacted exceptions to the stay put
rule. These changes set forth in 20 U.S.C. section 1415(k) authorize school administrators to
111 108 S. Ct. 592, 43 Ed. Law Rptr. 857 (198
.
order a change in placement to an appropriate interim alternative educational setting under
certain conditions. The unilateral authority granted to school administrators is severely limited
and can only be exercised after a number of procedural hurdles have been overcome.
While the stay put provision of the IDEA may limit the ability of administrators to
unilaterally change a special education student=s educational placement, it does not prevent all
transfers of students.112 The Court of Appeals in Sherri A.D., held that the purpose of the stay
put rule was to prevent the alteration of the child=s educational placement during the pendency of
a dispute under the IDEA, not alteration of the child=s residence or the location of their
educational program. 113 The court held that an educational placement for the purposes of the
IDEA has not changed unless a fundamental change in or elimination of a basic element of the
educational program has occurred.114 In Lunceford, the Court of Appeals held that the transfer
of a severely disabled special education student from one residential placement to another was
not a change in educational placement even where the new placement could not provide the same
high level of service with respect to the child=s feeding program. 115
In Lunceford v. District of Columbia Board of Education,116 the Court of Appeals held
that the transfer of a student from a private hospital to a government run institution which had
the same day time education did not constitute a change in educational placement. The court
held that there must be, at a minimum, a fundamental change in or elimination of a basic element
of the education program in order for the change to qualify as a change in educational
placement.117
In Weil v. Board of Elementary and Secondary Education,118 the Court of Appeals held
that the stay put provision of the IDEA applies only to changes in Aeducational placement@ not
physical location. The Court of Appeals stated:
“We are not persuaded that the cited notice provisions were mandated in
the instance of Kimberly=s transfer from Cooley to Kiroli because that transfer did
not constitute a change in ‘educational placement’ within the meaning of 20
U.S.C. section 1415(b)(1)(C). The programs at both schools were under OPSB
supervision, both provided substantially similar classes, and both implemented the
same IEP for Kimberly. We conclude that the change of schools under the
circumstances presented in this case was not a change in ‘educational placement’
under section 1415.”119
In Concerned Parents and Citizens v. New York City Board of Education,120 the Court of
Appeals reversed a lower court decision barring the transfer of special education students to a
number of other schools in the district. The district court found that the schools to which the
112 See, Sherri A.D. v. Kirby, 975 F.2d 193, 77 Ed.Law Rptr. 655 (5th Cir. 1992), see, also Honig v. Doe, 108 S.Ct. 592, 606
(198
.
113 Id. at 206.
114 Id. at 206. See, also, Lunceford v. District of Columbia Board of Education, 745 F.2d 1577, 20 Ed.Law Rptr. 1075 (D.C. Cir.
1984).
115 745 F.2d 1577, 20 Ed. Law Rptr. 1075 (D.C. Cir. 1984).
116 Ibid.
117 Id. at 1582.
118 931 F.2d 1069, 67 Ed. Law Rptr. 482 (5th Cir. 1991).
119 Id. at 1072.
120 629 F.2d 751 (2nd Cir. 1980).
students were transferred did not, in all respects, duplicate the “extremely innovative educational
program” formerly provided to the handicapped children at P.S. 79. However, the Court of
Appeals held that the reference to “educational placement” in Section 1415 refers to the general
educational program in which a child is enrolled, rather than variations in the program itself.
The Court of Appeals held that there are strong policy considerations for narrowly interpreting
the meaning o
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